INTERNATIONAL CUISINE- I (THEORY)
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE CUISINE
a) Geographical Location
China is a vast country, spanning diverse climates from the subarctic North to the tropical South. This immense geographical diversity is the primary driver behind the major regional culinary distinctions. The North is characterized by long, cold winters, favoring wheat production. The South has warmer, wetter climates ideal for growing rice. Coastal regions heavily feature seafood, while inland areas rely more on livestock and preserved goods.
b) Historical and Cultural Backdrop
Chinese cuisine is rooted in a rich history stretching back millennia, guided by the philosophy of Yin and Yang, which emphasizes balance in food (e.g., balance of hot/cold, sweet/sour, crispy/soft). The concept of 'Fan-Cai' (Grain-Dish), where Fan (rice/noodles/starches) is balanced by Cai (vegetable/meat dishes), is central to meal structure. Cultural events, such as the Lunar New Year and Qingming Festival, have special, often symbolic, foods associated with them (e.g., dumplings for wealth).
c) Staple Food with Regional Influence
The fundamental staple food varies dramatically by region:
Northern China (e.g., Beijing, Shandong): Dominated by wheat products like noodles, dumplings (jiaozi), and steamed buns (mantou).
Southern China (e.g., Guangdong, Sichuan): Dominated by rice, consumed as steamed rice, rice noodles, or rice porridge (congee).
Other Staples: Corn, millet, and sorghum are also historically important, particularly in drier, poorer regions.
d) Tools/Techniques/Utensils Used
The most iconic and essential tool is the wok . This rounded, deep pan allows for quick, intense, and even heat distribution, making techniques like stir-frying (chǎo) possible. Other key items include the cleaver (used for everything from slicing to mincing and crushing), bamboo steamers (for delicate steaming), and long-handled ladles/spatulas.
e) Specialty Ingredients
Core ingredients give Chinese food its distinct flavor profile:
Soy Sauce: Light (salty) and Dark (color/depth).
Fermented Products: Doubanjiang (chili bean paste), Douchi (fermented black beans), and Shaoxing rice wine (for marinating and cooking).
Aromatics: Ginger, garlic, and scallions are the holy trinity, often used to create a fragrant base (bào xiāng).
Spices: Five-Spice Powder (star anise, cloves, cinnamon, Sichuan peppercorns, fennel seeds).
f) Cooking Chinese Hot-Pot
Hot-Pot (huǒ guō) is a social and communal cooking method. A simmering pot of stock (often spicy or herbal) is placed at the center of the table. Diners select thin slices of raw meat (beef, lamb), seafood, vegetables, and noodles, and cook them briefly in the boiling broth. Dipping sauces (often a personalized mix of soy, sesame, chili oil, etc.) are used to season the cooked items.
g) Dim-Sum Guidelines
Dim Sum (diǎn xīn) translates to 'touch the heart' and refers to small, bite-sized portions of food served in steamer baskets or small plates, often enjoyed with tea during brunch. Guidelines include:
Variety: Orders should feature a variety of cooking methods (steamed, fried, baked).
Balance: Include both savory (e.g., Siu Mai, Har Gow) and sweet items (e.g., egg tarts).
Pacing: Dishes are ordered and arrive in waves, encouraging a leisurely meal.
h) Popular Dishes
Peking Duck: A Northern dish featuring roasted duck with crisp skin, served with thin pancakes and scallions.
Kung Pao Chicken: A Sichuan dish known for its spicy-sweet-sour flavor, featuring chicken, peanuts, vegetables, and chili peppers.
Ma Po Tofu: Another Sichuan classic, a fiery mix of soft tofu, ground meat, and fermented bean paste.
Chapter 2: INTRODUCTION TO JAPANESE CUISINE
a) Geographical Location
Japan is an archipelago (a chain of islands) surrounded entirely by the sea. This unique geography dictates the dominance of seafood in the diet. The terrain is largely mountainous, leaving limited land for farming, which encourages resourcefulness and minimal waste in food preparation.
b) Historical and Cultural Backdrop
Japanese cuisine, or Washoku, is revered for its aesthetic presentation and respect for the natural flavor of ingredients. A strong historical influence came from Buddhism, which introduced periods of vegetarianism and discouraged the consumption of meat for centuries. The cultural philosophy emphasizes seasonal ingredients and preparing food to look like a piece of art. The principles of the Five Colors (white, yellow, red, green, black) and Five Flavors (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, savory) guide plating and balance.
c) Staple Food with Regional Influence
The undisputed staple is rice (gohan), specifically a short-grain, sticky variety. It is eaten at almost every meal.
Regional Staples: While rice is universal, regions near the sea focus on specific seafood (e.g., saba (mackerel) in the west). Inland areas utilize more mountain vegetables and fermented soybeans (nattō).
d) Tools/Techniques/Utensils Used
Precision and sharpness are key. The Japanese knife (hōchō) is paramount, with specialized knives for specific tasks (e.g., Yanagiba for slicing sashimi). Cooking techniques prioritize simplicity and gentle treatment of ingredients: sashimi (raw slicing), tempura (light batter frying), and simmering/braising (nimono).
e) Specialty Ingredients
The essence of Japanese flavor comes from:
Dashi: A fundamental, savory broth made from kombu (kelp) and katsuobushi (smoked, dried, fermented skipjack tuna flakes).
Soy Sauce (Shōyu): Various types (light, dark, tamari) are used.
Miso: Fermented soybean paste, used in soup and marinades.
Mirin: Sweet rice wine used for cooking.
Seaweed: Nori, Wakame, and Kombu are essential, especially for sushi and dashi.
f) Eating Etiquettes
Japanese dining has formal rules:
Greeting: Saying Itadakimasu before eating and Gochisōsama deshita after the meal.
Chopsticks (Hashi): Never stick them upright in rice (it resembles a funeral rite), don't pass food directly to another person's chopsticks, and use the back end if sharing from a communal dish.
Soup: It is acceptable to lift a soup bowl (like miso soup) and drink directly from it.
g) Importance of UMAMI
Umami is one of the five basic tastes (alongside sweet, sour, salty, and bitter). It's a deep, savory, "meaty" flavor, often described as a pleasant savoriness. It is naturally abundant in ingredients like kombu, katsuobushi (in dashi), and aged products like miso and soy sauce. Umami provides richness and depth without needing excess fat or salt.
h) Popular Dishes
Sushi/Sashimi: Vinegar rice (sushi) or simply raw slices of fish (sashimi).
Ramen: Wheat noodles served in a meat or fish-based broth, flavored with soy sauce or miso, and topped with various ingredients.
Tempura: Seafood and vegetables deep-fried in a very light, airy batter.
i) Comparison with Chinese Cuisine
Philosophy
Japanese Cuisine: Emphasizes respect for natural ingredients, simplicity, and aesthetics.
Chinese Cuisine: Focuses on the balance of Yin/Yang, flavor contrasts, and abundance.
Oil/Fat Usage
Japanese Cuisine: Generally features minimal use of oil/fat (Tempura is a notable exception).
Chinese Cuisine: Involves more extensive use of oils (often peanut or sesame) primarily for stir-frying.
Staple Flavor Base
Japanese Cuisine: Dashi (Umami) is the foundation of almost all flavors.
Chinese Cuisine: Soy Sauce, Ginger, Garlic, and Scallion form the primary flavor base.
Regionalism
Japanese Cuisine: Tends to be more uniform nationally, with variations primarily based on local ingredients.
Chinese Cuisine: Is highly diverse, often defined by the "Four Great Schools" (e.g., Sichuan, Cantonese, Shandong, Huaiyang).
Chapter 3: INTRODUCTION TO THAI CUISINE
a) Geographical Location
Thailand is in Southeast Asia, bordered by the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, giving it access to abundant seafood. Its tropical, monsoon climate is perfect for growing rice, chili, coconut, and a wide array of aromatic herbs (lemongrass, galangal, kaffir lime). The central plains are famously fertile rice bowls.
b) Historical and Cultural Backdrop
Thai cuisine is characterized by the harmonious fusion of four fundamental tastes in a single dish or meal: sweet, sour, salty, and spicy. Historically, it has been heavily influenced by India (curries, spices), China (stir-frying, noodles), and Portugal (chili peppers). Thai culture emphasizes eating as a communal event, with dishes served simultaneously and shared among the group, rather than a sequence of individual courses.
c) Influence of Buddhism, Monarchy, Faith and Believes, Social values
Buddhism: While there are no strict dietary laws, the influence encourages compassion, often leading to a wide acceptance of vegetarian dishes. Monks rely on alms, so their diet is whatever is donated.
Monarchy: The refinement of Royal Thai Cuisine has historically set the standard, emphasizing intricate carving, delicate preparation, and the use of rare or premium ingredients.
Social Values: Hospitality is paramount. Serving guests the best food is a sign of respect. Meals are highly social and communal, reinforcing group cohesion.
d) Staple Food with Regional Influence
The primary staple is rice.
Central and Southern Thailand: Jasmine rice is the preferred fragrant, long-grain variety.
Northern and Northeastern Thailand (Isaan): Glutinous/Sticky rice (khao niao) is the staple, often eaten with the hand.
Regional Variations: The South is known for rich coconut milk curries and seafood. The North features milder, less coconut-heavy curries and unique local herbs. Isaan (Northeast) is famous for fiery, fermented, and grilled foods (e.g., Som Tum—papaya salad).
e) Tools/Techniques/Utensils Used
Wok: Used for stir-frying and deep-frying, like in Chinese cuisine.
Mortar and Pestle (Krok): Essential for making curry pastes (krueng kaeng) from scratch, blending aromatics like chili, galangal, and lemongrass into a fine paste.
Utensils: Historically, Thais ate with their hands (especially sticky rice). Modern dining uses a spoon (to scoop food) and a fork (to push food onto the spoon), rarely a knife.
f) Specialty Ingredients
Thai cuisine is defined by its fresh, aromatic profile:
The Trinity: Lemongrass, Galangal (similar to ginger but sharper), and Kaffir Lime Leaves.
Flavor Agents: Fish Sauce (Nam Pla) is the primary source of saltiness and umami. Tamarind provides a distinct sourness.
Heat: Thai Chili Peppers (Prik Khee Noo) are used extensively.
Fat: Coconut Milk/Cream (Gati) is used in most curries and some desserts.
g) Popular Dishes
Tom Yum Goong: A clear, hot, and sour soup with shrimp, mushrooms, and the aromatic trinity.
Pad Thai: Stir-fried rice noodles with a sweet/sour/savory sauce, tofu, shrimp, peanuts, and bean sprouts.
Green Curry (Gaeng Keow Wan): A rich, creamy curry made with green chili paste, coconut milk, and basil.
h) Comparison with Chinese and Japanese Cuisine
Thai Cuisine
Dominant Flavor: A balance of four tastes (Sweet, Sour, Salty, Spicy).
Spice Level: Often high heat due to chilis.
Oil Use: Moderate use for stir-frying/sautéing, balanced by coconut milk.
Sauce Base: Fish Sauce, Tamarind, Coconut Milk, Fresh Herbs.
Chinese Cuisine
Dominant Flavor: Savory/Umami with a strong aromatic base (Ginger/Garlic).
Spice Level: Varies widely; Sichuan is spicy, Cantonese is mild.
Oil Use: High use for stir-frying.
Sauce Base: Soy Sauce, Fermented Pastes (Doubanjiang), Rice Wine.
Japanese Cuisine
Dominant Flavor: Umami (Dashi) and the natural flavor of the ingredients.
Spice Level: Generally low in heat/spices.
Oil Use: Minimal use.
Sauce Base: Soy Sauce, Miso, Dashi, Mirin.
Chapter 4: FLOUR AND DOUGH ADDITIVES AND TREATMENTS
a) Vitamins and Minerals, Bleaching and Maturing Agents
Vitamins and Minerals: White flour is often enriched after milling, meaning B vitamins (Niacin, Riboflavin, Thiamin, Folic Acid) and iron are added back to replace those lost during processing. Whole wheat flour naturally retains more of these nutrients.
Bleaching Agents: Chemicals like Benzoyl Peroxide are used to whiten the yellowish carotenoid pigments in flour, resulting in a cleaner-looking, whiter product.
Maturing Agents (Oxidizers): These agents, such as Potassium Bromate (less common now due to health concerns) or Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C), help to speed up the aging process of the flour. Freshly milled flour produces weak, sticky dough. Oxidizers improve the flour's gluten-forming properties by strengthening the protein structure, leading to better volume and texture in baked goods.
b) Determining the Strength of the Flour (Hand/Colour Test)
The strength of the flour refers to its protein/gluten content.
Hand Test: A handful of flour is compressed and released. Strong flour (high protein) tends to hold its shape better and feels slightly coarser. Weak flour (low protein) crumbles more readily and feels softer and smoother.
Colour Test: The natural color of the flour indicates how much of the bran and germ has been removed. Whiter flour is generally an indicator of lower mineral/ash content and can be used to gauge extraction rates, though it's not a direct measure of protein content. Whiter flours often result from bleaching.
c) Bread Flour, Artisan Flour, Pastry Flour, Cake Flour, All-purpose Flour
These categories are defined primarily by their protein content and how they are milled:
Bread Flour (12-14% Protein): High protein content for maximum gluten development. Essential for structured, chewy breads with good volume.
Artisan Flour (Variable, often 11-13%): Often less refined and sometimes unbleached, retaining a portion of the bran/germ (higher mineral/ash content). Used for rustic, complex-flavored breads.
All-Purpose Flour (9-11% Protein): A versatile middle ground, suitable for general baking, cookies, and non-specialty breads.
Pastry Flour (8-10% Protein): Lower protein for a tender crumb in pastries, pie crusts, and biscuits.
Cake Flour (6-8% Protein): The lowest protein content, often chlorine-treated to disrupt gluten and absorb more liquid, resulting in a very fine, soft, and tender cake structure.
d) Importance of Gluten
Gluten is a complex protein network formed when Gliadin and Glutenin (the storage proteins in wheat) are hydrated and mechanically worked (kneaded).
Structure and Volume: Gluten creates an elastic and extensible web that can trap the CO2 gas produced by yeast (or chemical leaveners). This trapped gas allows the dough to rise (oven spring) and gives baked goods their internal structure and chewiness.
e) Determining Gluten Requirements (Windowpane Test)
The Windowpane Test is a method to check if the gluten network in a yeasted dough is sufficiently developed. A small piece of dough is gently stretched. If the dough can be stretched thinly enough to see light through it without tearing (like a pane of glass), the gluten is well-developed and ready for fermentation or proofing. If it tears easily, more kneading is required.
f) Controlling Gluten Development
The baker can control the strength of the gluten network:
Inhibition (Weakening):
Adding Fat or Sugar: These coat the flour particles and inhibit the hydration of the proteins.
Using Acid (e.g., in sourdough): Acid weakens the gluten bonds.
Less Kneading/Mixing: Prevents the network from fully forming.
Promotion (Strengthening):
Hydration: More water allows for more protein interaction.
Kneading: Mechanical action aligns and cross-links the protein chains.
Salt: Strengthens the gluten network and controls the yeast.
g) Dough Relaxation
Dough relaxation is the process of allowing a dough to rest after mixing or kneading. During this time, the gluten network, which has been tightened and stressed by manipulation, begins to untangle and soften. This makes the dough less elastic (less prone to snapping back when shaped) and more extensible (easier to stretch and mold). Relaxation is critical between steps like bulk fermentation and final shaping.
h) Retarding Fermentation
Retarding is the process of slowing down yeast activity and fermentation by storing the dough in a cool environment, typically the refrigerator (40C or lower).
Benefits: It slows the production of CO2 and allows the dough to ferment for a longer period. This extended, slow fermentation develops complex organic acids, leading to a much deeper, more complex flavor in the final baked product (often used in Artisan and Sourdough breads). It also gives the baker flexibility in scheduling.
Chapter 5: BAKERY PRODUCTS- FAULTS AND REMEDIES
a) Bread, Cake, Cookies & Pies Faults (Causes and Remedies)
Bread
Fault: Dense, heavy crumb/low volume
Common Causes: Insufficient kneading (poor gluten development); Under-proofed (yeast didn't produce enough gas); Too little water (stiff dough).
Remedy: Increase kneading/mixing time; Allow longer, warmer proofing; Increase hydration (water/liquid).
Cake
Fault: Cracked/Domed Top
Common Causes: Oven temperature is too high (crust sets too fast); Too much flour or too little liquid.
Remedy: Reduce oven temperature; Ensure precise liquid measurement; Lower baking temperature.
Cookies
Fault: Spreading too much (too flat)
Common Causes: Too much leavening (baking soda/powder); Too much butter or butter too soft/melted; Low flour strength.
Remedy: Chill the dough before baking; Reduce leavening agent; Use correct proportions.
Pies
Fault: Soggy Bottom Crust
Common Causes: Oven temperature too low (steam condenses before crust sets); Filling too liquid; Cold baking sheet.
Remedy: Bake at a higher temperature; Blind bake the crust; Use a pre-heated stone/steel; Thicken filling.
b) Gluten Development in Quick Breads (Tunnelling, Over Mixing)
Quick breads (e.g., muffins, biscuits, pancakes) rely on chemical leaveners (baking powder/soda), not yeast. Therefore, gluten development must be avoided.
Over Mixing: Excess mixing develops the gluten network in the low-protein batter.
Tunnelling: This is the resulting fault of over mixing. It manifests as large, elongated, smooth holes/tunnels running through the crumb from top to bottom. It results in a tough, chewy texture instead of the desired tender, crumbly quick bread texture.
Remedy: Mix only until the dry and wet ingredients are just combined; it is acceptable and even desirable to have a few lumps remaining in the batter.
c) Preferments and Sourdough Starters - Poolish, Biga, Levain
A Preferment is a portion of flour, water, and yeast (or wild yeast/bacteria) mixed ahead of time and allowed to ferment before being added to the final dough. It adds flavor complexity, better texture, and improves the dough's keeping qualities.
Poolish: A highly hydrated (liquid-like), equal-weight mixture of flour and water (100% hydration) with a small amount of commercial yeast. It ferments quickly and adds a delicate, nutty flavor.
Biga: A stiff, low-hydration mixture of flour, water, and commercial yeast. It ferments more slowly, producing a slightly acidic flavor and a stronger gluten structure than a poolish, resulting in a bread with excellent volume.
Levain (Sourdough Starter): A live culture of wild yeast and lactic acid bacteria (LAB), maintained by regular feeding with flour and water. It serves as both the leavening agent and the primary source of flavor (sourness and complexity) in sourdough bread.
d) Sourdough Making, Storing & Refreshing Starter
Making a Starter (Levain): Mix equal parts (by weight) of flour (usually whole wheat or rye to encourage microbial activity) and water in a jar. Allow to rest. After 24 hours, discard half and feed with fresh flour and water. Repeat this discard/feed process daily for 7-14 days until the culture is reliably active (doubling in volume within 4-8 hours of feeding).
Storing Starter: A mature starter can be stored in the refrigerator to slow microbial activity. It can be kept for up to a week between feedings. This is the common method for infrequent bakers. For longer storage, it can be dried.
Refreshing (Feeding) Starter: The process of mixing a portion of the old starter with fresh flour and water. The ratio is typically 1:1:1 (Starter:Flour:Water by weight), though it can vary. The purpose is to provide the yeast and bacteria with new food to maintain their activity, keep the pH balanced, and prepare the starter for baking. The starter is typically removed from the fridge and fed 2-3 times at room temperature before being used in a bake.
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